reflection on the test

i feel that my last and only test for this research methodology class is that it really provides a lot of information on what is research and why do we need to do research. apart from that, i also feel that this subject had given me in-depth knowledge about how to go about doing a good educational research. i hope, in the future i will be able to investigate more issues on learning English as a second language and its impact on the Malaysian context.

my latest research title

Title- Students' Attitudes and Motivation Towards  English in ESL Classroom.

last class on saturday 13/12/2014

Evening everyone. Today i finally get a chance to write again in my blog. for the past 4 days i spent my holiday in my husband kampung in Kelantan. There was no Internet access there.
The last class i attended on this subject which was on Saturday, i attended a quiz. the quiz had 3 main sections. the first section was mcq questions, the second part was open-ended questions and the final part was short essay question. i think i did quite ok. although the last part was a bit though.
aside from the test, my lecturer Dr Teoh went through again my research question. 

Students’ Attitudes, Motivation and Anxiety towards English Language Learning- revised

Background of the study / Statement of the Problem

The acquisition of second/foreign language is induced by various variables like

motivation, attitudes, anxiety, learning achievements, aptitudes, intelligence, age, self identities, personalities, and so forth (Gardner, 1960; Lehmann, 2006; Schmidt, Borai & Kassabgy, 1996). Successful language learning is a multifaceted creation where these

variables have a complex relationship (Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Boyle, & Houndoulesi,

1993; Dornyei, 1994; Norris-Holt, 2001) and have the potential to influence student’s

motivation, attitudes (i.e. likes and dislikes) and similarly could raise or drop their

anxiety levels (i.e. levels of apprehension or fear) towards language learning (Dornyei,

1990; McIntyre & Gardner, 1991; Dornyei & Otto, 1998; Ramirez, 1995). These factors

increase student’s interests, behaviors and actions in the language classrooms, promoting

or hindering their language learning performances (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Clement,

Dornyei & Noels, 1994; Salim, 1996) and are demonstrated differently by individuals

exhibiting their experiences, values, societal norms and living patterns (Mertens, 1998

cites Schwandt, 1994). Lack of comfort or fear that a student might experience will

influence his/her performances on language tasks that require attention and deliberate

effort (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986) and can lose confidence in the instructional

approach if language teaching processes fail to meet their needs and expectations and

therefore, the language accomplishment can be inadequate (Horwitz, 1987).

Moreover, gender has been an important perspective under second language

learning investigations; highlighting females to execute more interests, positive behaviors

and performances, in comparison to the males (Keller, 1983; Aacken, 1999; Dornyei &

Shoaib, 2005). These gender differences are due to students’ unlike levels of motivation,

attitudes and anxiety towards language learning, further influenced by their learning

characteristics and styles, lesson content and teaching strategies, social environment and

supportive mechanisms, family influences and peer pressures, cognition levels, and so

forth (Williams, Burden & Lanvers, 2002). Thus, investigating affective aspects have

become vitally important, especially under the gender perspective in order to enhance

students’ interests and outcomes in second language learning. Therefore, this research

study aims to answer the following research question:

What are the attitudes, motivations and classroom anxiety of male and female

Students towards English language learning in a multilingual context of form six students in the district of Temerloh, Malaysia?

The importance of investigating the gender-wise students’ attitudes, motivations

and anxiety in an eastern multilingual context, makes this study more significant, as the

existing literature refers to studies mostly conducted in western contexts; generally on

native speakers or immigrant students. The study findings will contribute to the existing

literature by adding valuable insights from the gender perspective.

Objectives

RQ.1-Are the students highly interested/motivated in learning English as a second language?

RQ.2 Are the students motivated instrumentally or integratively towards learning English?

RQ.3 What are the attitudes of the students towards learning English?

RQ.4 What are the attitudes of the students towards English-speaking people?

Conceptual Framework

The students’ attitudes, motivation and anxiety towards English language learning. 

Instrument

the survey questionnaire was adapted from Gardner’s (1985)

‘Attitude Motivation Test Battery’ (AMTB).

Analysis

Descriptive Statistics

Today extra class 6/12/2014

Morning everyone. Today is another important and beneficial class for me. Today i learn about example of a case study, reliability and validity.

Today also we have to submit our proposal by 26 of December and will be having a quiz next Saturday.

Motivating Language Learners to Succeed

Home> Read and Publish > Journals > Other Serial Publications > Compleat Links > Compleat Links Volume 5, Issue 2 (June 2008) > Motivating Language Learners to Succeed

Sevtap Karaoglu points out the significant role that motivation plays in learning and provides suggestions for how to keep language learners motivated in the classroom. See also Debra W. Hawke's Portal article, "Improving Academic English at Outdoor Nature Centers," Essential Teacher, June 2008.

Motivation plays a significant role in the process of learning a language. Language teachers cannot effectively teach a language if they do not understand the relationship between motivation and its effect on language acquisition. The core of motivation is what might be called passion, which relates to a person's intrinsic goals and desires. Successful learners know their preferences, their strengths and weaknesses, and effectively utilize strengths and compensate for weaknesses. Successful language learning is linked to the learner’s passion. And instructors should find ways to connect to this passion.

Learners need quality instruction, input, interaction, and opportunities for meaningful output, not only to make progress, but also to maintain motivation for language learning. A good teacher, then, must tap into the sources of intrinsic motivation and find ways to connect them with external motivational factors that can be brought to a classroom setting. This is especially significant when English is not seen as important to the students' immediate needs, other than to pass exams. Because learners have different purposes for studying a language, it is important for instructors to identify students' purposes and needs and to develop proper motivational strategies. Students should understand why they need to make an effort, how long they must sustain an activity, how hard they should pursue it, and how motivated they feel toward their pursuits.

Motivation fluctuates, and it is challenging to keep language learners' motivation at a high level all the time. When designing a language course, teachers must take into consideration that each learner has different interests and expectations. The following strategies are effective ways to increase language learners' external motivation.

Create a Friendly Atmosphere in the Classroom

Develop a friendly climate in which all students feel recognized and valued. Many students feel more comfortable participating in classroom activities after they know their teacher and their peers. Creating a safe and comfortable environment where everyone feels like a part of the whole is one of the most significant factors in encouraging motivation. Doing so may take time as students adjust themselves to a new setting.

At the beginning of the school year, you can provide students with a bright and colorful classroom with pictures and projects completed by the previous year's students. This gives students the impression that learning the target language will be easy and enjoyable. It also gives students a chance to learn from what is present in the environment. Pair and group activities can be used from the very outset, reducing the pressure of teacher–student interaction and allowing students to feel recognized by their peers. The feeling of becoming a part of the whole is one of the strongest motivational factors at the beginning of a school year.

One ice-breaker that you could use to start this process is the nickname activity. Students can invent and write down a nickname (or use a nickname they already have). Arranged in a circle, each student has to stand up and explain his or her nickname. Along with introducing themselves, this fun activity gives students a chance to create a friendly and flexible classroom atmosphere.

Encourage Students to Personalize the Classroom Environment

Providing students with a learner-centered, low-anxiety classroom environment has a great impact on language acquisition. Personalizing the environment can relax the students and enhance the friendly atmosphere, which will increase their desire to learn and develop their language skills. Students who feel safe and comfortable will feel more secure taking chances; they will display greater motivation to read aloud in class or write an essay without the fear of being criticized.

I remember very well, as a student, my English teacher giving us a chance to arrange the classroom in the way that would make us feel most comfortable. The teacher gave us the impression that there was no limit to what we could do to our learning environment. We covered the walls with colorful movie posters and the lyrics of famous songs, and we also personalized our desks. Our classroom became a warm, cheerful place where we enjoyed learning and studying.

Create Situations in Which Students Will Feel a Sense of Accomplishment

A sense of accomplishment is a great factor in motivating students. Be sure to give positive feedback and reinforcement. Doing so can increase students' satisfaction and encourage positive self-evaluation. A student who feels a sense of accomplishment will be better able to direct his or her own studies and learning outcomes. Positive as well as negative comments influence motivation, but research consistently indicates that students are more affected by positive feedback and success. Praise builds students' self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem.

However, giving positive feedback should not be mistaken for correcting mistakes without giving explanations. Some teachers correct students' mistakes without really explaining the reason for doing so. It is very important for teachers to point out the good aspects of a student's work and to provide a clear explanation of his or her mistakes. Students value the teacher's ideas when they feel that their good work is appreciated, and this encourages them to start evaluating themselves for further studies.

Encourage Students to Set Their Own Short-Term Goals

Language learners can achieve success by setting their own goals and by directing their studies toward their own expectations. Students can help themselves achieve their goals by determining their own language needs and by defining why they want to learn the language. Having goals and expectations leads to increased motivation, which in turn leads to a higher level of language competence. We as teachers should encourage students to have specific short-term goals such as communicating with English speakers or reading books in English. No matter what these goals are, we should help students set and pursue them.

Provide Pair and Group Activities to Develop Students’ Confidence

Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, and solving. Passivity decreases students' motivation and curiosity. Students' enthusiasm, involvement, and willingness to participate affect the quality of class discussion as an opportunity for learning. Small-group activities and pair work boost students' self-confidence and are excellent sources of motivation. Group work can give quiet students a chance to express their ideas and feelings on a topic because they find it easier to speak to groups of three or four than to an entire class. Once students have spoken in small groups, they usually become less reluctant to speak to the class as a whole. Group activities allow students not only to express their ideas but also to work cooperatively, which increases class cohesion and thus motivation.

I often do a vocabulary exercise in which I put students in groups of four. I distribute vocabulary words on flashcards, and each student must choose one of the flashcards without showing the word to fellow group members. Then, each student explains his or her word by giving three clues to the group without using the actual word. Using the clues, the other students must draw pictures that reflect the meaning of the word. This activity gives students flexibility to use other skills for their language development. It also gives quieter students a chance to express themselves within their groups, even when they are not confident to express themselves in front of the entire class.

Connect Language Learning to Students' Interests Outside of Class

In today’s high-tech learning environment, it would be unfair to limit students to traditional methods. Encouraging students to relate their classroom experience to outside interests and activities makes developing language skills more relevant. For example, computer-assisted language learning could be linked to playing computer games, or to computer programs that the students are interested in using. Listening to English language songs, watching English language films or videos, and reading English language Web sites can lead students to broaden their perspective on their language acquisition process.

Motivational teaching strategies such as these can easily increase language learners' motivation levels. The idea that student motivation is a personality trait and that students are either motivated or unmotivated is incorrect. Without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkable abilities cannot achieve their long-term goals. As instructors, we may be the most important factor in influencing our students' motivation, which is a key element in the language acquisition process.

Sevtap Karaoglu (sevtapipek@yahoo.com) is a graduate student specializing in TESOL at the University of Northern Virginia, in the United States, and an ESL teacher.

The Role of Students’ Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning in Online Language Courses

The Role of Students’ Attitudes and
Motivation in Second Language Learning
in Online Language Courses
EIKO USHIDA
University of California, San Diego

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the role of students’ motivation and attitudes in second
language (L2) study within an online language course context (LOL). Students’
attitudes and motivation were examined within a socioeducational framework
(Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993) while learning contexts were examined based on
Dörneyi’s (1994) components of foreign language learning motivation. Students’
learning behaviors and learning outcomes were used as predictor and criterion
variables in a series of quantitative and qualitative analyses. The results showed
that students tended to have relatively high anxiety about the LOL course at
the beginning of the semester, perhaps due to their lack of familiarity with the
specific LOL learning environment. However, students’ motivation and attitudes
toward L2 study were relatively positive and stable during the course. The findings
provided some evidence that motivated students studied regularly and productively
to take every opportunity to perfect their language skills. It was also
found that each teacher idiosyncratically implemented the LOL course, thereby
creating a unique class culture and affecting students’ motivation and attitudes
toward studying the L2 in the LOL context. The findings reinforced the importance
of students’ motivation and attitudes in L2 study and, equally important,
the continuing critical role of the teacher in technology-enhanced teaching.

Another related article for my proposal.

article for my literature review

Carnegie Mellon University
Research Showcase @ CMU
Dietrich College Honors Theses Dietrich College of Humanities and Social Sciences
4-2010
Motivation in Foreign Language Learning: The
Relationship between Classroom Activities,
Motivation, and Outcomes in a University
Language-Learning Environment
Jaclyn Bernard
Carnegie Mellon University

Abstract
In the study of academic motivation in a language-learning setting, motivation has
traditionally been considered an independent variable. The present study treats it as both a
dependent function of classroom activities and an independent predictor of study time, expected
grade, and whether a student will continue to study the language. Six distinct motivational types
are discussed: motivation about the language, motivation about the class, confidence, external
motivation, whether the class feels required, and self-reported motivation. Motivation about the
language is found to be of particular importance in predicting outcomes, along with fun activities
and activities that promote language use about students’ own lives and interests.


another article for my literature review

My proposal

the  topic that im interested in is learners motivation in language learning, especially learning the second language.

this is one of the articles i have found under this topic.

Motivation as a Contributing Factor in Second Language Acquisition

Jacqueline Norris-Holt
jacquijapan [at] hotmail.com
Aichi Shukutoku High School (Nagoya, Japan)

This paper explores Gardner's socio-educational model and the significance of motivation as a contributing factor in second language (L2) acquisition. Motivation is defined as the learner's orientation with regard to the goal of learning a second language. Motivation is divided into two basic types: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation is characterised by the learner's positive attitudes towards the target language group and the desire to integrate into the target language community. Instrumental motivation underlies the goal to gain some social or economic reward through L2 achievement, thus referring to a more functional reason for language learning. Both forms of motivation are examined in light of research which has been undertaken to establish the correlation between the form of motivation and successful second language acquisition. Motivation in the Japanese EFL context is then discussed and studies which have been conducted in the field investigated.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 6, June 2001
http://teslj.org/

---

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Norris-Motivation.html

this article had given me a lot of information on this topic.

hope to get more articles soon.

DATA ANALYSIS- QUALITATIVE

WHAT ARE INFERENTIAL STATISTICS?
Main Points
• Inferential statistics refer to certain procedures that allow researchers to make inferences
about a population based on data obtained from a sample.
• The term probability, as used in research, refers to the predicted relative frequency
with which a given event will occur.

SAMPLING ERROR
• The term sampling error refers to the variations in sample statistics that occur as a
result of repeated sampling from the same population.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE MEANS
• A sampling distribution of means is a frequency distribution resulting from plotting
the means of a very large number of samples from the same population.
• The standard error of the mean is the standard deviation of a sampling distribution of
means. The standard error of the difference between means is the standard deviation
of a sampling distribution of differences between sample means.

CONFIDENCE INTERVALS

• A confidence interval is a region extending both above and below a sample statistic
(such as a sample mean) within which a population parameter (such as the population
mean) may be said to fall with a specified probability of being wrong.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
• Statistical hypothesis testing is a way of determining the probability that an obtained
sample statistic will occur, given a hypothetical population parameter.
• A research hypothesis specifices the nature of the relationship the researcher thinks
exists in the population.
• The null hypothesis typically specifies that there is no relationship in the population.

SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS
• The term significance level (or level of significance ), as used in research, refers to the
probability of a sample statistic occurring as a result of sampling error.
• The significance levels most commonly used in educational research are the .05 and
.01 levels.
• Statistical significance and practical significance are not necessarily the same. Even if a
result is statistically significant, it may not be practically (i.e., educationally) significant.

TESTS OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
• A one-tailed test of significance involves the use of probabilities based on one-half of
a sampling distribution because the research hypothesis is a directional hypothesis.
• A two-tailed test, on the other hand, involves the use of probabilities based on both sides
of a sampling distribution because the research hypothesis is a nondirectional hypothesis.

PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR QUANTITATIVE DATA
• A parametric statistical test requires various kinds of assumptions about the nature
of the population from which the samples involved in the research study were taken.
• Some of the commonly used parametric techniques for analyzing quantitative data
include the t -test for means, ANOVA, ANCOVA, MANOVA, MANCOVA, and the
t -test for r .

PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR CATEGORICAL DATA
• The most common parametric technique for analyzing categorical data is the t -test
for differences in proportions.

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS FOR QUANTITATIVE DATA
• A nonparametric statistical technique makes few, if any, assumptions about the nature
of the population from which the samples in the study were taken.
• Some of the commonly used nonparametric techniques for analyzing quantitative
data are the Mann-Whitney U test, the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance,
the sign test, and the Friedman two-way analysis of variance.

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS FOR CATEGORICAL DATA
• The chi-square test is the nonparametric technique most commonly used to analyze
categorical data.
• The contingency coefficient is a descriptive statistic indicating the degree of relationship
between two categoriPOWER OF A STATISTICAL TEST
• The power of a statistical test for a particular set of data is the likelihood of identifying
a difference, when in fact it exists, between population parameters.
• Parametric tests are generally, but not always, more powerful than nonparametric testscal variables

DATA ANALYSIS- DESCRIPTIVE

STATISTICS VERSUS PARAMETERS

• A parameter is a characteristic of a population. It is a numerical or graphic way to
summarize data obtained from the population.
• A statistic, on the other hand, is a characteristic of a sample. It is a numerical or
graphic way to summarize data obtained from a sample.

TYPES OF NUMERICAL DATA
• There are two fundamental types of numerical data a researcher can collect. Quantitative
data are obtained by determining placement on a scale that indicates amount or
degree. Categorical data are obtained by determining the frequency of occurrences in
each of several categories.

TYPES OF SCORES
• A raw score is the initial score obtained when using an instrument; a derived score
is a raw score that has been translated into a more useful score on some type of standardized
basis to aid in interpretation.
• Age/grade equivalents are derived scores that indicate the typical age or grade associated
with an individual raw score.
• A percentile rank is the percentage of a specific group scoring at or below a given
raw score.
• A standard score is a mathematically derived score having comparable meaning on
different instruments.

TECHNIQUES FOR SUMMARIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA
• A frequency distribution is a two-column listing, from high to low, of all the scores
along with their frequencies. In a grouped frequency distribution, the scores have
been grouped into equal intervals.
• A frequency polygon is a graphic display of a frequency distribution. It is a graphic
way to summarize quantitative data for one variable.
• A graphic distribution of scores in which only a few individuals receive high scores is
called a positively skewed polygon; one in which only a few individuals receive low
scores is called a negatively skewed polygon.
• A histogram is a bar graph used to display quantitative data at the interval or ratio
level of measurement.
• A stem-leaf plot is similar to a histogram, except it lists specific values instead of
bars.
• The normal distribution is a theoretical distribution that is symmetrical and in which
a large proportion of the scores are concentrated in the middle.
• A distribution curve is a smoothed-out frequency polygon.
• The distribution curve of a normal distribution is called a normal curve. It is bell
shaped, and its mean, median, and mode are identical.
• There are several measures of central tendency (averages) that are used to summarize
quantitative data. The two most common are the mean and the median.
• The mean of a distribution is determined by adding up all of the scores and dividing
this sum by the total number of scores.
The median of a distribution marks the point above and below which half of the
scores in the distribution lie.
• The mode is the most frequent score in a distribution.
• The term variability, as used in research, refers to the extent to which the scores on a
quantitative variable in a distribution are spread out.
• The most common measure of variability used in educational research is the standard
deviation.
• The range, another measure of variability, represents the difference between the
highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
• A five-number summary of a distribution reports the lowest score, the first quartile,
the median, the third quartile, and the highest score.
• Five-number summaries of distributions are often portrayed graphically by the use
of boxplots.

STANDARD SCORES AND THE NORMAL CURVE
• Standard scores use a common scale to indicate how an individual compares to other
individuals in a group. The simplest form of standard score is a z score. A z score
expresses how far a raw score is from the mean in standard deviation units.
• The major advantage of standard scores is that they provide a better basis for comparing
performance on different measures than do raw scores.
• The term probability, as used in research, refers to a prediction of how often a particular
event will occur. Probabilities are usually expressed in decimal form
.
CORRELATION
• A correlation coefficient is a numerical index expressing the degree of relationship
between two quantitative variables. The one most commonly used in educational
research is the Pearson r .
• A scatterplot is a graphic way to describe a relationship between two quantitative
variables.

TECHNIQUES FOR SUMMARIZING CATEGORICAL DATA
• Researchers use various graphic techniques to summarize categorical data, including
frequency tables, bar graphs, and pie charts.
• A crossbreak table is a graphic way to report a relationship between two or more
categorical variables

INSTRUMENTATION - QUESTIONNAIRE

WHAT ARE DATA?
• The term data refers to the kinds of information researchers obtain on the subjects
of their research.

INSTRUMENTATION
• The term instrumentation refers to the entire process of collecting data in a research
investigation.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
• An important consideration in the choice of a research instrument is validity: the extent
to which results from it permit researchers to draw warranted conclusions about
the characteristics of the individuals studied.
• A reliable instrument is one that gives consistent results.

OBJECTIVITY AND USABILITY
• Whenever possible, researchers try to eliminate subjectivity from the judgments they
make about the achievement, performance, or characteristics of subjects.
• An important consideration for any researcher in choosing or designing an instrument
is its ease of use.

WAYS TO CLASSIFY INSTRUMENTS
• Research instruments can be classified in many ways. Some of the more common are
in terms of who provides the data, the method of data collection, who collects the
data, and what kind of response they require from the subjects.
• Research data are obtained by directly or indirectly assessing the subjects of a study.
• Self-report data are provided by the subjects of a study themselves.
• Informant data are provided by other people about the subjects of a study.

TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
• There are many types of researcher-completed instruments. Some of the more commonly
used are rating scales, interview schedules, observation forms, tally sheets,
fl owcharts, performance checklists, anecdotal records, and time-and-motion logs.
• Many types of instruments are completed by the subjects of a study rather than the
researcher. Some of the more commonly used of this type are questionnaires; selfchecklists;
attitude scales; personality inventories; achievement, aptitude, and performance
tests; and projective and sociometric devices.
• The types of items or questions used in subject-completed instruments can take many
forms, but they all can be classified as either selection or supply items. Examples
of selection items include true-false items, multiple-choice items, matching items,
and interpretive exercises. Examples of supply items include short-answer items and
essay questions.
• An excellent source for locating already available tests is the ERIC database.
• Unobtrusive measures require no intrusion into the normal course of affairs.

NORM-REFERENCED VERSUS CRITERION-REFERENCED INSTRUMENTS
• Instruments that provide scores that compare individual scores to the scores of an
appropriate reference group are called norm-referenced instruments.
• Instruments that are based on a specific target for each learner to achieve are called
criterion-referenced instruments.

MEASUREMENT SCALES
• Four types of measurement scales—nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio—are used
in educational research.
• A nominal scale uses numbers to indicate membership in one or more categories.
• An ordinal scale uses numbers to rank or order scores from high to low.
• An interval scale uses numbers to represent equal intervals in different segments on
a continuum.
• A ratio scale uses numbers to represent equal distances from a known zero point.

PREPARING DATA FOR ANALYSIS
• Collected data must be scored accurately and consistently.
• Once scored, data must be tabulated and coded.

SAMPLING

SAMPLES AND SAMPLING
• The term sampling, as used in research, refers to the process of selecting the
individuals who will participate (e.g., be observed or questioned) in a research
study.
• A sample is any part of a population of individuals on whom information is obtained.
It may, for a variety of reasons, be different from the sample originally
selected.
SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS
• The term population, as used in research, refers to all the members of a particular
group. It is the group of interest to the researcher, the group to whom the researcher
would like to generalize the results of a study.
• A target population is the actual population to whom the researcher would like to
generalize; the accessible population is the population to whom the researcher is
entitled to generalize.
• A representative sample is a sample that is similar to the population on all
characteristics.

RANDOM VERSUS NONRANDOM SAMPLING
• Sampling may be either random or nonrandom. Random sampling methods include
simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster random sampling, and
two-stage random sampling. Nonrandom sampling methods include systematic sampling,
convenience sampling, and purposive sampling.

RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS
• A simple random sample is a sample selected from a population in such a manner
that all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected.
• A stratified random sample is a sample selected so that certain characteristics
are represented in the sample in the same proportion as they occur in the
population.
• A cluster random sample is one obtained by using groups as the sampling unit rather
than individuals.
• A two-stage random sample selects groups randomly and then chooses individuals
randomly from these groups.
• A table of random numbers lists and arranges numbers in no particular order and can
be used to select a random sample.

NONRANDOM SAMPLING METHODS

• A systematic sample is obtained by selecting every n th name in a population.
• A convenience sample is any group of individuals that is conveniently available to
be studied.
• A purposive sample consists of individuals who have special qualifi cations of some
sort or are deemed representative on the basis of prior evidence.
SAMPLE SIZE
• Samples should be as large as a researcher can obtain with a reasonable expenditure
of time and energy. A recommended minimum number of subjects is 100 for a descriptive
study, 50 for a correlational study, and 30 in each group for experimental
and causal-comparative studies.

EXTERNAL VALIDITY (GENERALIZABILITY)

• The term external validity, as used in research, refers to the extent that the results of
a study can be generalized from a sample to a population.
• The term population generalizability refers to the extent to which the results of a
study can be generalized to the intended population.
• The term ecological generalizability refers to the extent to which the results of a
study can be generalized to conditions or settings other than those that prevailed in
a particular study.

REPLICATION
• When a study is replicated, it is repeated with a new sample and sometimes under
new conditions

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

THE NATURE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• The term qualitative research refers to studies that investigate the quality of relationships,
activities, situations, or materials.
• The natural setting is a direct source of data, and the researcher is a key part of the
instrumentation process in qualitative research.
• Qualitative data are collected mainly in the form of words or pictures and seldom
involve numbers. Coding is the primary technique used in data analysis.
• Qualitative researchers are especially interested in how things occur and particularly
in the perspectives of the subjects of a study.
• Qualitative researchers do not, usually, formulate a hypothesis beforehand and then
seek to test it. Rather, they allow hypotheses to emerge as a study develops.
• Qualitative and quantitative research differ in the philosophic assumptions that underlie
the two approaches.

STEPS INVOLVED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• The steps involved in conducting a qualitative study are not as distinct as they are in
quantitative studies. They often overlap and sometimes are even conducted concurrently.
• All qualitative studies begin with a foreshadowed problem, the particular phenomenon
the researcher is interested in investigating. Some qualitative researchers state
propositions to help their data collection and also analysis.
• Researchers who engage in a qualitative study of some type usually select a purposive
sample. Several types of purposive samples exist.
• There is no treatment in a qualitative study, nor is there any manipulation of variables.
• The collection of data in a qualitative study is ongoing.
• Conclusions are drawn continuously throughout the course of a qualitative study.

APPROACHES TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• A biographical study tells the story of the special events in the life of a single
individual.
• A researcher studies an individual’s reactions to a particular phenomenon in a phenomenological
study. He or she attempts to identify the commonalities among different
individual perceptions.
• In a grounded theory study, a researcher forms a theory inductively from the data
collected as a part of the study.
• A case study is a detailed study of one or (at most) a few individuals or other social
units, such as a classroom, a school, or a neighborhood. It can also be a study of an
event, an activity, or an ongoing process.

GENERALIZATION IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Generalizing is possible in qualitative research, but it is of a type different from that
found in quantitative studies. Most likely it will be done by interested practitioners.

ETHICS AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• The identities of all participants in a qualitative study should be protected, and they
should be treated with respect.

RECONSIDERING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• Aspects of both qualitative and quantitative research often are used together in a
study. Increased attention is being given to such mixed-methods studies.
• Whether qualitative or quantitative research is the most appropriate boils down to
what the researcher wants to find out.

RESEARCH DESIGN- QUANTITATIVE CLASS 1/11/2014

Experimental Research

Experimental research is one of the most powerful research
methodologies that researchers can use.

Of the many types of research that might be used, the experiment

is the best way to establish cause-and-effect relationships
among variables.

The Uniqueness of Experimental Research

 Of all the research methodologies described in this
book, experimental research is unique in two very
important respects: It is the only type of research that
directly attempts to influence a particular variable,
and when properly applied, it is the best type for testing
hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships.
In an experimental study, researchers look at the
effect(s) of at least one independent variable on one or
more dependent variables. The independent variable
in experimental research is also frequently referred
to as the experimental , or treatment , variable . The
dependent variable , also known as the criterion , or
outcome , variable , refers to the results or outcomes
of the study.



The major characteristic of experimental research
that distinguishes it from all other types of research is
that researchers manipulate the independent variable.

Independent variables frequently manipulated in educational research
include methods of instruction, types of assignment,
learning materials, rewards given to students, and types
of questions asked by teachers.

 Dependent variables that are frequently studied include achievement, interest
in a subject, attention span, motivation, and attitudes
toward school.

Experimental research, therefore, enables researchers
to go beyond description and prediction, beyond the
identification of relationships, to at least a partial determination
of what causes them.



Some actual examples of the kinds of experimental studies
that have been conducted by educational researchers are
as follows:
• The effect of small classes on instruction.
• The effect of early reading instruction on growth
rates of at-risk kindergarteners.
• The use of intensive mentoring to help beginning
teachers develop balanced instruction.
• The effect of lotteries on Web survey response rates.
• Introduction of a course on bullying into preservice
teacher-training curriculum.
• Using social stories to enhance the interpersonal conflict
resolution skills of children with learning disabilities.
• Improving the self-concept of students through the
use of hypnosis.

Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research

COMPARISON OF GROUPS

An experiment usually involves two groups of subjects,
an experimental group and a control or a comparison
group, although it is possible to conduct an experiment
with only one group (by providing all treatments to
the same subjects) or with three or more groups. The
experimental group receives a treatment of some sort
(such as a new textbook or a different method of teaching),
while the control group receives no treatment (or
the comparison group receives a different treatment).
The control or the comparison group is crucially important
in all experimental research, for it enables the
researcher to determine whether the treatment has had
an effect or whether one treatment is more effective
than another.

MANIPULATION OF THE INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE

The second essential characteristic of all experiments is
that the researcher actively manipulates the independent
variables. What does this mean? Simply put, it means
that the researcher deliberately and directly determines
what forms the independent variable will take and then
which group will get which form. For example, if the independent
variable in a study is the amount of enthusiasm
an instructor displays, a researcher might train two
teachers to display different amounts of enthusiasm as
they teach their classes.

Although many independent variables in education
can be manipulated, many others cannot. Examples of
independent variables that can be manipulated include
teaching method, type of counseling, learning activities,
assignments given, and materials used; examples of independent
variables that cannot be manipulated include
gender, ethnicity, age, and religious preference. Researchers
can manipulate the kinds of learning activities
to which students are exposed in a classroom, but they
cannot manipulate, say, religious preference—that is,
students cannot be “made into” Protestants, Catholics,
Jews, or Muslims, for example, to serve the purposes
of a study. To manipulate a variable, researchers must
decide who is to get something and when, where, and
how they will get it.

RANDOMIZATION

An important aspect of many experiments is the random
assignment of subjects to groups. Although there are
certain kinds of experiments in which random assignment
is not possible, researchers try to use randomization
whenever feasible. It is a crucial ingredient in the
best kinds of experiments. Random assignment is similar,
but not identical, to the concept of random selection.

Random assignment means that every individual who is
participating in an experiment
has an equal chance of being assigned to any of
the experimental or control conditions being compared.
Random selection , on the other hand, means that every
member of a population has an equal chance of being
selected to be a member of the sample.

Control of Extraneous
Variables
Researchers in an experimental study have an opportunity
to exercise far more control than in most other
forms of research. They determine the treatment (or
treatments), select the sample, assign individuals to
groups, decide which group will get the treatment, try
to control other factors besides the treatment that might
influence the outcome of the study, and then (finally)
observe or measure the effect of the treatment on the
groups when the treatment is completed.

Group Designs in Experimental
Research


The quality of an experiment
depends on how well the various threats to internal
validity are controlled.

POOR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Designs that are “weak” do not have built-in controls for
threats to internal validity. In addition to the independent
variable, there are a number of other plausible explanations
for any outcomes that occur. As a result, any
researcher who uses one of these designs has difficulty
assessing the effectiveness of the independent variable.
The One-Shot Case Study. In the one-shot case
study design , a single group is exposed to a treatment
or event and a dependent variable is subsequently observed
(measured) in order to assess the effect of the
treatment.

The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design.
In the one-group pretest-posttest design , a single
group is measured or observed not only after being
exposed to a treatment of some sort, but also before.

The Static-Group Comparison Design. In
the static-group comparison design , two already existing,
or intact, groups are used. These are sometimes referred
to as static groups, hence the name for the design.
This design is sometimes called a nonequivalent control
group design .

The Static-Group Pretest-Posttest Design.
The static-group pretest-posttest design differs from
the static-group comparison design only in that a pretest
is given to both groups.


TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

The essential ingredient of a true experimental design
is that subjects are randomly assigned to treatment
groups. As discussed earlier, random assignment is a
powerful technique for controlling the subject characteristics
threat to internal validity, a major consideration
in educational research.

The Randomized Posttest-Only Control

Group Design. The randomized posttest-only control
group design involves two groups, both of which
are formed by random assignment. One group receives
the experimental treatment while the other does not,
and then both groups are posttested on the dependent
variable.


The Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control
Group Design. The randomized pretest-posttest
control group design differs from the randomized
posttest-only control group design solely in the use of
a pretest. Two groups of subjects are used, with both
groups being measured or observed twice. The first measurement
serves as the pretest, the second as the posttest.

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Quasi-experimental designs do not include the use
of random assignment. Researchers who employ these
designs rely instead on other techniques to control (or
at least reduce) threats to internal validity. We shall describe
some of these techniques as we discuss several
quasi-experimental designs.

The Matching-Only Design.
The matching-only design differs from random assignment with matching
only in the fact that random assignment is not used. The
researcher still matches the subjects in the experimental
and control groups on certain variables, but he or she has
no assurance that they are equivalent on others.

Counterbalanced Designs.
Counterbalanced designs represent another technique for equating experimental
and comparison groups. In this design, each group
is exposed to all treatments, however many there are, but
in a different order. Any number of treatments may be involved.
An example of a diagram for a counterbalanced
design involving three treatments is as follows:
Time-Series Designs. The typical pre- and posttest
designs examined up to now involve observations
or measurements taken immediately before and after
treatment. A time-series design , however, involves
repeated measurements or observations over a period
of time both before and after treatment.

FACTORIAL DESIGNS
Factorial designs extend the number of relationships
that may be examined in an experimental study. They
are essentially modifi cations of either the posttest-only
control group or pretest-posttest control group designs
(with or without random assignment), which permit
the investigation of additional independent variables.
Another value of a factorial design is that it allows a
researcher to study the interaction of an independent
variable with one or more other variables, sometimes
called moderator variables. Moderator variables may
be either treatment variables or subject characteristic
variables.

A Summary on EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

THE UNIQUENESS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Experimental research is unique in that it is the only type of research that directly
attempts to influence a particular variable, and it is the only type that, when used
properly, can really test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. Experimental
designs are some of the strongest available for educational researchers to use in
determining cause and effect.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Experiments differ from other types of research in two basic ways—comparison of
treatments and the direct manipulation of one or more independent variables by the
researcher.

RANDOMIZATION
• Random assignment is an important ingredient in the best kinds of experiments.
It means that every individual who is participating in the experiment has an equal
chance of being assigned to any of the experimental or control conditions that are
being compared.

CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
• The researcher in an experimental study has an opportunity to exercise far more control
than in most other forms of research.
• Some of the most common ways to control for the possibility of differential subject
characteristics (in the various groups being compared) are randomization, holding
certain variables constant, building the variable into the design, matching, using subjects
as their own controls, and using analysis of the covariance.

POOR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• Three weak designs that are occasionally used in experimental research are the oneshot
case study design, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the static-group
comparison design. They are considered weak because they do not have built-in controls
for threats to internal validity.
• In a one-shot case study, a single group is exposed to a treatment or event, and its
effects are assessed.
• In the one-group pretest-posttest design, a single group is measured or observed both
before and after exposure to a treatment.
• In the static-group comparison design, two intact groups receive different treatments

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• The essential ingredient of a true experiment is random assignment of subjects to
treatment groups.
• The randomized posttest-only control group design involves two groups formed by
random assignment.
• The randomized pretest-posttest control group design differs from the randomized
posttest-only control group only in the use of a pretest.
• The randomized Solomon four-group design involves random assignment of subjects
to four groups, with two being pretested and two not.

MATCHING
• To increase the likelihood that groups of subjects will be equivalent, pairs of subjects
may be matched on certain variables. The members of the matched groups are then
assigned to the experimental and control groups.
• Matching may be either mechanical or statistical.
• Mechanical matching is a process of pairing two persons whose scores on a particular
variable are similar.
• Two difficulties with mechanical matching are that it is very difficult to match on
more than two or three variables, and that in order to match, some subjects must be
eliminated from the study when no matches can be found.
• Statistical matching does not necessitate a loss of subjects.

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• The matching-only design differs from random assignment with matching only in
that random assignment is not used.
• In a counterbalanced design, all groups are exposed to all treatments, but in a different
order.
• A time-series design involves repeated measurements or observations over time, both
before and after treatment.

FACTORIAL DESIGNS
• Factorial designs extend the number of relationships that may be examined in an
experimental study.

Why LITERATURE REVIEW is important?

The Definition and Value of a

Literature Review

A literature review is an assessment of a body (or bodies)

of literature that pertains to a specific question.

 A literature review is helpful in several ways.

 It not only helps researchers glean the ideas of others interested

in a particular research question (through important

research findings and theories), but it also lets them

read about the results of similar or related studies. 

Literature reviews also give researchers ideas about areas

where more research needs to be done. They refer to

these as “gaps” in the literature.

Types of Sources

A researcher needs to be familiar with three basic types

of sources as he or she begins to search for information

related to the research question. These terms apply both

to computerized searching (online or electronic) as well

as manual searching (using print/paper tools to locate

print/paper sources).

1. General reference tools are the sources researchers

often refer to first. In effect, they tell where to look

to locate other sources—such as articles, books, reports,

and other documents—that deal directly with

the research question. General reference tools are

usually either indexes, which list annotation of various publications, as well as place of publication.

2. Primary sources are publications in which researchers

report the results of their studies directly

to the reader. Most primary sources in education are

journals, such as the Journal of Educational Research

or the Journal of Research in Science Teaching

. These journals are usually published monthly

or quarterly, and the articles in them typically report

on a particular research study. Most college libraries

pay for subscriptions to online collections that

provide registered students free access to a wide

array of online databases, including electronic journals

that allow users to download full text articles on

demand.

3. Secondary sources refer to publications in which

authors describe the work of others. The most common

secondary sources in education are textbooks.

A textbook in educational psychology, for example,

may describe several studies as a way to illustrate

various ideas and concepts in psychology. Other

commonly used secondary sources include educational

encyclopedias, research reviews (usually peer reviewed

journals that publish literature reviews on

specific topics), and yearbooks.

Researchers who seek information systematically on

a given topic would refer first to one or more general

reference tools to locate primary and secondary sources

of value. For a quick overview of the problem at hand,

secondary sources are probably the best bet. For detailed

information about the research that others have

done, primary sources should be consulted.

Today, most researchers search the literature electronically

by means of a personal computer.

Steps Involved

in a Literature Search

The following steps are involved in a literature search:

1. Define the research problem as precisely as possible.

2. Look at relevant secondary sources (these can include

research reviews).

3. Select and peruse one or two appropriate general

reference works.

4. Formulate search terms (key words or phrases) pertinent

to the problem or question of interest.

5. Search for relevant primary sources using appropriate

general reference tools.

6. Obtain and read relevant primary sources, and note

and summarize key points in the sources.

The hypotheses of the study (if there are any)

• The methodology the researcher used

• A description of the subjects involved

• The results

• The conclusions

• The particular strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of

the study

What a Good Summary of a

Journal Article Should Contain

• The problem being addressed

• The purpose of the study

The hypotheses of the study (if there are any)

• The methodology the researcher used

• A description of the subjects involved

• The results

• The conclusions

• The particular strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of

the study

Summary of LITERATURE REVIEW

In order for me to understand the topic better, I always refer to the summary in the e-book.

THE VALUE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

• A literature review helps researchers learn what others have written about a topic. It

also lets researchers see the results of other, related studies.

• A detailed literature review is often required of master’s and doctoral students when

they design a thesis.

TYPES OF SOURCES FOR A LITERATURE REVIEW

• Researchers need to be familiar with three basic types of sources (general references,

primary sources, and secondary sources) in doing a literature review.

• General reference tools are sources a researcher consults to locate other sources.

• Primary sources are publications in which researchers report the results of their investigations.

Most primary source material is located in journal articles.

• Secondary sources refer to publications in which authors describe the work of others.

• The most common secondary sources in education are textbooks.

• Search terms are keywords or phrases researchers use to help locate relevant primary

sources.

STEPS INVOLVED IN A LITERATURE SEARCH

• The essential steps involved in a review of the literature include: (1) defining the

research problem as precisely as possible; (2) deciding on the extent of the search;

(3) deciding on the data base(s) to be searched; (4) formulating search terms;

(5) searching general reference tools for relevant primary sources; (6) obtaining and

reading the primary sources, and noting and summarizing key points in the sources.

WAYS TO DO A LITERATURE SEARCH

• Today, there are two ways to do a literature search—manually, using print/paper

tools to locate print/paper sources; and electronically, by means of a computer. The

most common and frequently used method, however, is to search online, via computer.

Regardless of the tools involved, the search process is similar.

• There are five essential points (problem, hypotheses, procedures, findings, and conclusions)

that researchers should record when taking notes on a study.

DOING A COMPUTER SEARCH

• Computer searches of the literature have a number of advantages—they are fast, are

fairly inexpensive, provide printouts, and enable researchers to search using more

than one descriptor at a time.

• The steps in a traditional manual search are similar to those in a computer search,

though computer searches are usually the norm.

• Researching the World Wide Web (WWW) should be considered, in addition to

ERIC and PsycINFO, in doing a literature search.

• Some of the information on the Web is classified into indexes, which group Web sites

together under similar categories. Yahoo! is an example of a directory.

• To obtain more specific information, search engines should be used, because they

search all of the contents of a Web site.

THE LITERATURE REVIEW REPORT

• The literature review report consists of an introduction, the body of the review, a

summary, the researcher’s conclusions, and a bibliography.

• A literature review should include a search for relevant meta-analysis reports, as well

as individual studies.

• When a researcher does a meta-analysis, he or she averages the results of a group of

selected studies to get an overall index of outcome or relationship.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCH PROBLEM
• A research problem is the focus of a research investigation.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Many research problems are stated as questions.
• The essential characteristic of a researchable question is that there be some sort of
information that can be collected in an attempt to answer the question.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions should be feasible—that is, capable of being investigated with
available resources.
• Research questions should be clear—that is, unambiguous.
• Research questions should be significant—that is, worthy of investigation.
• Research questions should be ethical—that is, their investigation should not involve
physical or psychological harm or damage to human beings or to the natural or social
environment of which they are a part.
• Research questions often (although not always) suggest a relationship to be investigated.
The term relationship, as used in research, refers to a connection or association
between two or more characteristics or qualities.

DEFINING TERMS IN RESEARCH
• Three common ways to clarify ambiguous or unclear terms in a research question
involve the use of constitutive (dictionary-type) definitions, definition by example,
and operational definitions.
• A constitutive definition uses additional terms to clarify meaning.
• An operational definition describes how examples of a term are to be measured or
identified.

Here are three examples of research questions. How would you rank them on a scale
of 1 to 5 (5 5 highest, 1 5 lowest) for clarity? for significance? Why?

a. How many students in the sophomore class signed up for a course in driver training
this semester?
b. Why do so many students in the district say they dislike English?
c. Is inquiry or lecture more effective in teaching social studies?
2. How would you define humanistically oriented classroom?
3. Some terms used frequently in education, such as motivation, achievement, and even
learning, are very hard to define clearly. Why do you suppose this is so?
4. How might the term excellence be defined operationally? Give an example.
5. “Even the clearest of definitions does not always guarantee meaningful communication.”
Is this really true? Why or why not?
6. We would argue that operational definitions should always be accompanied by constitutive
definitions. Would you agree? Can you think of an instance when this might
not be necessary?

Main points on the introduction to Research: A summary

WHY RESEARCH IS OF VALUE
• The scientifi c method provides an important way to obtain accurate and reliable
information.

WAYS OF KNOWING
• There are many ways to obtain information, including sensory experience, agreement
with others, expert opinion, logic, and the scientifi c method.
• The scientifi c method is considered by researchers the most likely way to produce
reliable and accurate knowledge.
• The scientifi c method involves answering questions through systematic and public
data collection and analysis.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Some of the most commonly used research methodologies in education are experimental
research, correlational research, causal-comparative research, survey research,
ethnographic research, historical research, and action research
.
• Experimental research involves manipulating conditions and studying effects.

• Correlational research involves studying relationships among variables within a single
group and frequently suggests the possibility of cause and effect.

• Causal-comparative research involves comparing known groups who have had different
experiences to determine possible causes or consequences of group membership.

• Survey research involves describing the characteristics of a group by means of such
instruments as interview questions, questionnaires, and tests.

• Ethnographic research concentrates on documenting or portraying the everyday experiences
of people, using observation and interviews.

• Ethnographic research is one form of qualitative research. Other common forms of
qualitative research include the case study, biography, phenomenology, and grounded
theory.

• A case study is a detailed analysis of one or a few individuals.

• Historical research involves studying some aspect of the past.

Action research is a type of research by practitioners designed to help improve their
practice.

• Evaluation research aims to improve the object or program being evaluated, usually
by strengthening its delivery, implementation, and outcomes.

• Each of the research methodologies described constitutes a different way of inquiring
into reality and is thus a different tool for understanding what goes on in education.

GENERAL RESEARCH TYPES

• Individual research methodologies can be classifi ed into general research types. Descriptive
studies describe a given state of affairs. Associational studies investigate
relationships. Intervention studies assess the effects of a treatment or method on
outcomes.

• Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies are based on different assumptions;
they also differ on the purpose of research, the methods used by researchers,
the kinds of studies undertaken, the researcher’s role, and the degree to which generalization
is possible.

• Mixed-method research incorporates both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

• Meta-analysis attempts to synthesize the results of all the individual studies on a
given topic by statistical means.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH

• Critical analysis of research raises basic questions about the assumptions and implications
of educational research.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

• Almost all research plans include a problem statement, an exploratory question or
hypothesis, definitions, a literature review, a sample of subjects, instrumentation, a
description of procedures to be followed, a time schedule, and a description of intended
data analyses.