It is useful to consider the various research methodologies
we have described as falling within one or more
general research categories: descriptive, associational,
or intervention-type studies.
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
Descriptive studies describe a given state of affairs as
fully and carefully as possible. One of the best examples
of descriptive research is found in botany and zoology,
where each variety of plant and animal species is meticulously
described and information is organized into
useful taxonomic categories.
In educational research, the most common descriptive
methodology is the survey, as when researchers summarize
the characteristics (abilities, preferences, behaviors,
and so on) of individuals or groups or (sometimes)
physical environments (such as schools). Qualitative approaches,
such as ethnographic and historical methodologies
are also primarily descriptive in nature. Examples
of descriptive studies in education include identifying the
achievements of various groups of students; describing
the behaviors of teachers, administrators, or counselors;
describing the attitudes of parents; and describing the
physical capabilities of schools. The description of phenomena
is the starting point for all research endeavors.
Descriptive research in and of itself, however, is not
very satisfying, since most researchers want to have a
more complete understanding of people and things. This
requires a more detailed analysis of the various aspects of
phenomena and their interrelationships. Advances in biology,
for example, have come about, in large part, as a result
of the categorization of descriptions and the subsequent
determination of relationships among these categories.
ASSOCIATIONAL RESEARCHhow (or if), for example, differences in achievement
are related to such things as teacher behavior, student
diet, student interests, or parental attitudes. By investigating
such possible relationships, researchers are able
to understand phenomena more completely
Educational researchers also want to do more than simply
describe situations or events. They want to knowResearch
that investigates relationships is often referred to as
associational research . Correlational and causalcomparative
methodologies are the principal examples
of associational research. Other examples include
studying relationships (1) between achievement and
attitude, between childhood experiences and adult
characteristics, or between teacher characteristics and
student achievement—all of which are correlational
studies—and (2) between methods of instruction and
achievement (comparing students who have been
taught by each method) or between gender and attitude
(comparing attitudes of males and females)—both of
which are causal-comparative studies.
INTERVENTION STUDIES
In intervention studies , a particular method or treatment
is expected to infl uence one or more outcomes.
Such studies enable researchers to assess, for example,
the effectiveness of various teaching methods, curriculum
models, classroom arrangements, and other efforts
to infl uence the characteristics of individuals or groups.
Intervention studies can also contribute to general
knowledge by confi rming (or failing to confi rm) theoretical
predictions (for instance, that abstract concepts
can be taught to young children). The primary methodology
used in intervention research is the experiment.
META-ANALYSIS
Meta-analysis is an attempt to reduce the limitations
of individual studies by trying to locate all of the studies
on a particular topic and then using statistical means
to synthesize the results of these studies. In Chapter 3,
we discuss meta-analysis in more detail. In subsequent
chapters, we examine in detail the limitations that are
likely to be found in various types of research. Some
apply to all types, while others are more likely to apply
to particular types.
we have described as falling within one or more
general research categories: descriptive, associational,
or intervention-type studies.
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
Descriptive studies describe a given state of affairs as
fully and carefully as possible. One of the best examples
of descriptive research is found in botany and zoology,
where each variety of plant and animal species is meticulously
described and information is organized into
useful taxonomic categories.
In educational research, the most common descriptive
methodology is the survey, as when researchers summarize
the characteristics (abilities, preferences, behaviors,
and so on) of individuals or groups or (sometimes)
physical environments (such as schools). Qualitative approaches,
such as ethnographic and historical methodologies
are also primarily descriptive in nature. Examples
of descriptive studies in education include identifying the
achievements of various groups of students; describing
the behaviors of teachers, administrators, or counselors;
describing the attitudes of parents; and describing the
physical capabilities of schools. The description of phenomena
is the starting point for all research endeavors.
Descriptive research in and of itself, however, is not
very satisfying, since most researchers want to have a
more complete understanding of people and things. This
requires a more detailed analysis of the various aspects of
phenomena and their interrelationships. Advances in biology,
for example, have come about, in large part, as a result
of the categorization of descriptions and the subsequent
determination of relationships among these categories.
ASSOCIATIONAL RESEARCHhow (or if), for example, differences in achievement
are related to such things as teacher behavior, student
diet, student interests, or parental attitudes. By investigating
such possible relationships, researchers are able
to understand phenomena more completely
Educational researchers also want to do more than simply
describe situations or events. They want to knowResearch
that investigates relationships is often referred to as
associational research . Correlational and causalcomparative
methodologies are the principal examples
of associational research. Other examples include
studying relationships (1) between achievement and
attitude, between childhood experiences and adult
characteristics, or between teacher characteristics and
student achievement—all of which are correlational
studies—and (2) between methods of instruction and
achievement (comparing students who have been
taught by each method) or between gender and attitude
(comparing attitudes of males and females)—both of
which are causal-comparative studies.
INTERVENTION STUDIES
In intervention studies , a particular method or treatment
is expected to infl uence one or more outcomes.
Such studies enable researchers to assess, for example,
the effectiveness of various teaching methods, curriculum
models, classroom arrangements, and other efforts
to infl uence the characteristics of individuals or groups.
Intervention studies can also contribute to general
knowledge by confi rming (or failing to confi rm) theoretical
predictions (for instance, that abstract concepts
can be taught to young children). The primary methodology
used in intervention research is the experiment.
META-ANALYSIS
Meta-analysis is an attempt to reduce the limitations
of individual studies by trying to locate all of the studies
on a particular topic and then using statistical means
to synthesize the results of these studies. In Chapter 3,
we discuss meta-analysis in more detail. In subsequent
chapters, we examine in detail the limitations that are
likely to be found in various types of research. Some
apply to all types, while others are more likely to apply
to particular types.
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